Background

Computers and telecommunications technologies are infusing schools in the United States at an exponential rate, and it has become incumbent on educators to gain an understanding of the unique benefits and challenges of integrating hypermedia technology into the curriculum. We are in a remarkable time in the history of education in that we can no longer accurately predict what kinds of literacy skills today's kindergartners will need upon graduation from high school (Leu, in press). Unfortunately, there is a shortage of research in this area. Reinking (1998), citing Kamil and Lane, reports that less than 1 percent of articles published in four leading educational research journals during a recent 3-year period addressed issues related to technology. Educators, therefore, are left facing monumental challenges with little support or guidance.

The pilot project described in this article was undertaken to explore the pedagogical benefits and challenges that exist when students engage in hypermedia design projects and, specifically, to investigate the potential benefits of such projects for the language arts curriculum. By collecting artifacts, surveying, interviewing, and observing a small group of students as they designed their school's website, I explored the language and literacy processes involved in working with hypermedia technology for authentic purposes.

To contextualize the critical issues surrounding this case study, three key areas of concern to educators are explored in this section: policy issues, curricular issues, and literacy issues.

Policy issues. Educational policy makers must grapple with several issues concerning appropriate and effective integration of computers into schools. First and most critical is funding. Never before has the educational community been called upon to finance such an expensive innovation. Seemingly limitless supplies of money are needed to buy or lease hardware and software, to maintain and upgrade equipment, to compensate technology coordinators and technical experts, and to provide release time for planning, training, and staff development. There is unprecedented community pressure on school districts to provide technological resources to their students, but doing so is often at the expense of other valuable programs and resources such as music, physical education, art, or even libraries.

The second key policy issue is equity. Disparities in socioeconomic resources result in discrepancies in the availability of computers and Internet access among school districts, and between children who have access to computers at home and those who do not. This suggests a possible educational and societal advantage for the computer "haves" over the "have nots." However, it has always been the case that more affluent families and districts have educational advantages, and it is not clear how the current disparity in access to technological resources compares in magnitude.

Finally, there is a serious policy issue having to do with assessment. It is critical that assessment practices be reexamined in light of any educational innovation in order to ensure that a match between objectives and outcomes is maintained. At present it is unclear exactly what kinds of educational outcomes can be expected with the advent of multimedia technology, and some educators may fail to see the benefits of spending time and resources on computers. As one school administrator recently lamented to a colleague of mine, "We've spent thousands of dollars on computers, but our test scores still haven't gone up!"

Irrespective of the challenges, educators are responsible for implementing mandates from various levels of government for the dissemination of technology. In the United States, the Clinton Administration has a widely publicized goal of bringing multimedia technology and the Internet into every public school by the year 2000. The "Technology Literacy Challenge" developed by the Office of Educational Technology of the U.S. Department of Education lists four criteria necessary for ensuring that "all children are technologically literate by the dawn of the 21st century":

1. modern computers and learning devices that are accessible to every student;
2. classrooms that are connected to one another and to the outside world;
3. educational software that is an integral part of the curriculum and is "as engaging as the best video game"; and
4. teachers who are ready to use and teach with the technology.

The International Society for Technology in Education recently released a set of standards by which educators can measure students' technology skills at grades 2, 5, 8, and 12. School districts around the world are frantically developing technology plans despite the lack of complete understanding of how new technologies may affect students' learning.

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Curricular issues. There are several themes that must be highlighted when discussing the potential impact of computers on the K-12 curriculum. First, teachers must understand how and when to use computer technology most effectively; second, they need to know how to select appropriate software; and third, they must be able to frame computer-related activities to maximize the benefits for student learning.

In choosing how and when to use technology, it is essential that teachers have a clear sense of their own instructional objectives. For example, if my primary goal as a reading teacher is to help students learn to encode, recode, and comprehend print, then my instruction would center on printed rather than electronic text. If, on the other hand, my goal is for students to learn how to send and receive e-mail, find resources online, and navigate hypertext environments, then instruction would focus on using hypermedia technology. Perhaps less obvious, if my goals also include motivating and engaging students, encouraging collaboration, and providing students with an authentic sense of audience when they write, then it would most definitely be appropriate for me to incorporate hypermedia design projects and the Internet into my curriculum.

Closely related to the topic of appropriate use of technology is knowing what kinds of software products are available and ensuring a match between those selected and teachers' orientations. There is an important distinction between ready-made software programs designed to present information and those designed for users to construct information. This distinction is analogous to presenting students with a commercially prepared textbook versus handing them a toolkit of writing, art, and photography supplies. Clearly, using these materials involves entirely different processes, serving entirely different objectives.

Language arts-related software designed to present information (such as an interactive storybook, a game, or a comprehensive reading program) can be based on a skills model, a holistic model, or some combination of the two. Sometimes the philosophical orientation of the software publisher is not obvious until the software is previewed; therefore, educators should try to do this whenever possible. Presentation software can be beneficial in the classroom if it is well designed, affordable, and easy to use, and if it matches the teacher's instructional philosophy.

Open-ended software designed to enable the student to construct information (such as the word-processing programs, database programs, and multimedia composers that Jonassen, 1996, has labeled "mindtools") is often more difficult for teachers to implement, but the rewards for students can be worth the effort. The demands of introducing these programs are similar to those placed on teachers who move their curricula away from commercial basal readers to an inquiry-based approach. Often it requires teachers to shift out of their accustomed role of "information givers" to become "learning facilitators" (Lehrer, Erickson, & Connell, 1994), particularly since students may quickly move beyond the expertise of their instructors.

Finally, teachers need to know how to frame computer-related activities for maximum benefits to student learning. Simply placing a computer in a classroom does not guarantee increased learning opportunities. Everything depends on how it is used. If students are permitted to engage in aimless surfing on the Internet or endless hours of arcade-style gaming, then it is doubtful they will learn the kinds of things we want them to learn. Further, if a teacher perceives the computer as an electronic babysitter, a place for students to play when all the "real work" of learning is done, this message will be communicated to students. In 1984, Salomon introduced the notion of "amount of invested mental effort" (AIME) on a task, a notion still very much applicable today. If we don't present computer-related tasks as valuable while also demanding accountability from those who engage in them, then students will relate to computers in the same superficial way that they often relate to television.

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Literacy issues. The discussion surrounding the potential impact of computer technology on literacy centers on the question of whether hypermedia constitutes a "revolution" in the forms and functions of literacy. Notable educators such as Emilia Ferreiro, Margaret Meek, and William Teale encourage us to situate computer-based literacy within a historical context, placing electronic texts alongside such monumental inventions as the ancient papyrus roll, the medieval codex, and the printed book. Teale (1997, p. 81) writes,

The invention of written language some 3000 years ago promoted new modes and registers of communication. Over the millennia, written language has come to play essential roles in the activities of our daily lives. Becoming an integral part of our daily activities also meant that the technology of written language changed our ways of thinking. In other words, people in today's literate societies think somewhat differently from nonliterate persons in nonliterate societies because they use literacy as a tool to mediate their activities.... I think that computer-related technologies have the potential to affect human thinking and communication as much as the technology of written language has. In this sense, technology should be an issue of great concern to language arts educators.

Goodman (1996) talks about how new language forms arise in a culture when the needs of the culture demand them. While he refers to the advent of written language in oral cultures, the same model could hold true for hypermedia. In the same way that print should not be considered merely a "simulation" of oral language but a language form in its own right (Goodman, 1996), many educators believe that electronic text represents an entirely new language form governed by its own idiosyncratic semiotic freedoms and constraints (see, for example, Bolter, 1991; Snyder, 1996). If it is true that "media can be defined by [their] technology, symbol systems, and processing capabilities" (Kozma, 1991, p. 180), then hypermedia embodies a substantively new order of human discourse.

According to Bolter (1991), each new technology of writing brings us a fresh physical and conceptual "writing space" that "fosters a particular understanding both of the act of writing and of the product, the written text" (p. 11). Each of these different writing spaces promotes different styles and genres of writing and different theories of literacy. Today, hypermedia writers are still in the process of discovering what these new structures and genres may become; in fact, we are in a time of such rapid technological change that "clearly, the literacy of yesterday is not the literacy of today and it will not be the literacy of tomorrow" (Leu, in press).

Hypertext itself may actually change the fundamental relationship between the reader, the author, and the text by permitting a literal transaction between reader and text (Reinking, 1994). Not only can an electronic text be programmed to adapt and respond to an individual reader's needs and interests during reading, hypertext environments allow the reader to select her or his own path through extensive networks of textual and multimedia information (Reinking, 1992). Readers can even choose to re-author portions of the encountered "text" by altering its content, layout, or appearance.

In my own thinking in this area, it has come as a great surprise to me that hypermedia-based discourse actually seems to share more characteristics with oral than with print-based language (see Table 1). Perhaps we have been missing the point entirely by perpetually comparing electronic text with printed text rather than viewing hypermedia literacy in relation to oral literacy.

Some of the characteristics shown in Table 1 (such as the notion that print is "noninteractive") are certainly open to debate, and it is apparent that scholarly conversation surrounding the relationship between hypermedia and traditional language forms has only just begun. For example, some have suggested that hypertext lends itself to episodic, rather than narrative, story structures (McLellan, 1992) and that this changes the essential rhythm or landscape of reading. Similarly, a poststructuralist might be interested in how hypermedia easily accommodates "multivoiced" text rather than the more traditional single-voiced narrative. In sum, each medium has distinct strengths and weaknesses in terms of how we express ourselves and make sense of the world around us. Language arts instruction is all about helping students construct and communicate meaning to others; therefore, it is imperative that we investigate the potential impact of computer technology as a meaning-making tool in the language arts classroom.

If language arts educators are concerned with facilitating students' use of strategies that are relevant to their daily lives and will be useful 20 or 30 years hence, then we have an obligation to familiarize ourselves with advances in technology. According to Reinking (1994), "the inexorable pace at which electronic forms of written communication are expanding strongly suggests that educators must become familiar with the essential nature of electronic texts. Only then will we be able to lay the foundation for developing an electronic literacy that will prepare us for the future" (p. 16). Furthermore, the traditional definition of literacy itself may need to be expanded to include multimedia and hypermedia texts. As Kinzer and Leu (1997, p. 126) observe,

We live during a time when fundamental change is taking place in the nature of literacy and learning as digital, multimedia resources enter our world. Literacy and learning are being redefined by the digital communication and multimedia technologies that are quickly becoming a part of the information age in which we live...multimedia and hypermedia technologies are changing traditional definitions of literacy and learning.

In the past, computer technology has tended to be associated with math and science curricula; however, with today's telecommunications technologies and multimedia applications, computers are establishing a legitimate role in the humanities and communication arts.

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Research Questions

The study described in this article was focused intentionally on an implementation of hypermedia technology as it related to curricular and literacy issues. This is not to suggest that policy issues are unimportant. For me, however, discussion of whether we should be infusing schools with computers has become almost moot: they are already in schools in great numbers. A more critical issue may now be how we, as language arts educators, will capitalize on using them in our instruction.

The following questions served as focal points for the investigation:

• What do grade 7 and 8 students perceive as the purposes of creating a school website?
• What are the pedagogical benefits when students design a school website?
• What are the pedagogical challenges posed when students design a school website?
• What are the pedagogical benefits specific to language arts?

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Theoretical Framework

This study reflects a semiotic-sociocultural-constructivist stance on the nature of learning and literacy. Through this lens interactive multimedia technology can be viewed as a culturally valued mediational tool for facilitating authentic literacy experiences in inquiry-based classrooms.

Educators and researchers who subscribe to a semiotic viewpoint suggest that what makes us human is our capacity to create and interpret signs and symbol systems (see, for example, Eisner, 1991; Gardner, 1983; Harste, 1994; Suhor, 1984). Because we can never know the world directly, we use signs (defined as anything that we use to convey meaning, including pictures, words, gestures, and objects) to mediate it (Suhor, 1992). From this perspective, the goal of literacy instruction is to teach children command of a variety of symbol systems and how to utilize "multiple ways of knowing for purposes of ongoing interpretation and inquiry into the world" (Leland & Harste, 1994, p. 339).

It is important to expose children to multiple forms of symbolic representation because each is uniquely capable of addressing different aspects of the world (Kozma, 1991; Salomon, 1997). Further, "the forms we use to represent what we think -- literal language, visual images, number, poetry -- have an impact on how we think and what we can think about. If different forms of representation performed identical cognitive functions, then there would be no need to dance, compute, or draw" (Eisner, 1997, p. 349). Forms of representation need not be taught as ends in themselves, however, but should be viewed as tools that students can use for thinking and communicating (Eisner, 1994; Greeno & Hall, 1997).

In multimedia technology, multiple symbolic forms are combined, thereby offering the possibility of greater educational equity for children who, for example, may be more visually than linguistically oriented (Kinzer, Gabella & Rieth, 1994; Wilhelm, 1995). This rich multimodal resource combines elements of written language, dynamic images, audio, video, animation, and graphic design in order to enhance its communicative power (Downes & Fatouros, 1995; Glasgow, 1997; Reinking, 1994). With this technology, it is possible "not only to convey words but also to convey their inflections, the accompanying gestures, the surrounding action, the visual context, and other nonverbal communication" (Rose & Meyer, 1994, p. 291). Furthermore, it allows us to make meanings through combinations of symbol systems that we could not make, or make as well, through any of the systems on their own (Lemke, 1992).

Some educators suggest that "constructing meaning from multiple perspectives, using multiple media sources, provides a richer understanding of complex information, especially if one lacks prior knowledge about a topic" (Kinzer & Leu, 1997, p. 130). In a fascinating semiotic analysis of young children at work in a classroom computer center, Labbo (1996, p. 381) discovered that

The computer also seemed to offer unique support and mediation for children's construction of meaning about the process of symbol making.... Children were able to draw on their understanding of the purposes and forms of the language arts (e.g., listening, speaking, and writing) as they intertwined processes related to fine arts (e.g., using color, line, and text) and multimedia arts (e.g., visualizing, creating dynamic screen effects, accomplishing animation through manipulation of icons).

The computer's unique capacity to transform information instantaneously from one symbol system into another capitalizes on the power of transmediation for children's literacy development (Dickson, 1985; Labbo, 1996; Snow, 1997). Transmediation refers to "taking a content and expression plane of one sign system and recasting it in terms of the content and expression plane of another sign system" (Harste, 1994, p. 1226). Because correspondence between different modes of representation is not one to one, the tension between symbol systems forces learners to create their own links between systems of representation. The opportunity for children to experiment with transmediation within a flexible multimedia environment may lead to a greater understanding of complex information and to multiple ways of knowing (Blackstock & Miller, 1992; Kozma, 1991). However, educators must be cautioned that poorly designed educational software, difficult-to-navigate hypertext environments, and the Internet can also lead children away from their central purpose.

As children become proficient users of multimedia technology, they may invent new forms of meaning that we have not yet imagined. If "representations are constructed for specific purposes during attempts to solve problems and communicate with others about these attempts" (Greeno & Hall, 1997, p. 365), then the problems children face in the future could inspire them to use technology to fashion unusual and innovative symbolic products (Eisner, 1994; Gardner, 1983). This may require language arts educators to extend the four generally recognized language arts processes of reading, writing, speaking, and listening to include literacy events within multimedia environments (Downes & Fatouros, 1995; Lehrer, Erickson, & Connell, 1994). As Teale (1997, p. 81) notes:

Technology is necessitating a redefinition of literacy. Traditionally, we have thought of literacy as reading and writing text. But now, multimedia capabilities mean that texts can be combinations of written words, visual images, and sound.... [T]echnological developments are affecting the very nature, processes, and uses of literacy. The creation of such new modes of interacting with texts suggests that we need to broaden our notion of literacy and even think in terms of literacies rather than literacy .

From a sociocultural perspective, hypermedia technology is rapidly becoming a valued means of communication and has the potential to evoke authentic uses of language through students' collaboration with others (Dyson, 1993). These meaningful social interactions can boost learners to new levels of independent achievement within their "zone of proximal development" (Vygotsky, 1978). The awareness of a wide audience for their work inspires students to use greater care in producing high-quality products and encourages collaboration regarding content and design (Barkhouse, 1997; Cohen & Riel, 1989; Downes & Fatouros, 1995; Jones, 1994; Owston, 1997).

A constructivist or inquiry-based model of instruction invites both students and teachers to engage in a collaborative negotiation of the curriculum (Harste, 1994; Short & Burke, 1991; Short, Schroeder, Laird, Kauffman, Ferguson, & Crawford, 1996). Dewey (1938, p. 67) describes this collaboration as follows:

There is, I think, no point in the philosophy of progressive education which is sounder than its emphasis upon the importance of the participation of the learner in the formation of the purposes which direct his activities in the learning process, just as there is no defect in traditional education greater than its failure to secure the active co-operation of the pupil in construction of the purposes involved in his studying.

In an inquiry-based classroom, multimedia technology and the Internet can be viewed as avenues for learners to use critical thinking and problem-solving strategies to transform information into knowledge (Jonassen, 1996). Furthermore, "teaching in an online setting challenges teachers to shift paradigms and use a constructivist model of learning" (Peterson & Facemyer, 1996, p. 53). Teachers are increasingly redefining traditional notions of instruction, and it is interesting to observe how technological developments are occurring simultaneously with the movement toward constructivist models of teaching and learning (Ayersman, 1996; Brown, 1991).

In the study described in the remainder of this article, I demonstrate how a hypermedia authoring project built on this theoretical framework gave students an authentic, constructivist literacy experience.

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Section References

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