Bilingual Books: Promoting Literacy and Biliteracy in the Second-Language and Mainstream Classroom

Gisela Ernst-Slavit
Margaret Mulhern

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Abstract This article discusses the benefits of and strategies for using bilingual books in mainstream classrooms and in classrooms where English is taught as a second language. The article begins with a brief discussion about literacy and biliteracy that underscores the importance of supporting and nurturing literacy in the first language as a vehicle to developing literacy in English. Following a cursory description of the different kinds of bilingual books available, the remainder of the article illustrates ways of using bilingual books to foster literacy development for second-language learners. It is argued that the presence of books in other languages in the classroom library sends a clear message about the value of languages, scripts, and cultures in that classroom.

Related Postings from the Archives Responding to the Demographic Challenge by Jill Kerper Mora A Look at Fifteen Beginning Readers by Marsha Grace

In her 1992 picture book A Birthday Basket for Tía, Latina writer Pat Mora tells the warm and joyful story of a young Latina girl’s search for the perfect present for her great-aunt’s 90th birthday. Like several of Mora’s children books, A Birthday Basket for Tía seamlessly integrates Spanish into a text written primarily in English. When Mora was questioned about her use of Spanish within a predominantly English text, she responded, “It’s as if I played the piano and decided I wasn’t going to use the black keys. Why would I not use this other source I have for communication?” (Corsaro, 1997).

Mora’s belief in using a second language in addition to the first to enhance communication and learning (Corsaro, 1997) has been advocated by many in the field of second-language acquisition. Furthermore, research indicates that using the native language helps ESL (English as a second language) students to avoid cognitive confusion and achievement lags in school performance (Hakuta & Diaz, 1984; Krashen & Biber, 1988; Thomas & Collier, 1997).

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Literacy and Biliteracy

Literacy is consistently associated with educational success and achievement. It is part of the cultural capital valued by our society, and achievement in it serves as a primary gatekeeper for entry into educational institutions, the workforce, and leadership positions (Gutierrez, 1992). Biliteracy, the ability to read and write in two or more languages, is thus associated with the academic achievement of students who speak English as a second language.

There is no shortage of research evidence that a sound foundation in the first language -- spoken and written -- creates the best conditions for the acquisition of a second language. Studies have demonstrated the importance of literacy in the first language for students’ full development of proficiency in the language of instruction, subsequent academic success, and high levels of self-confidence (Collier, 1992; Hakuta, 1986; Snow, 1990). Furthermore, studies have consistently indicated that academic and linguistic skills transfer to the second language, even in the case of languages with dissimilar writing systems (Au, 1993; Cummins, 1991; Ovando & Collier, 1998). In other words, children who learn to read and write in Spanish at home, at school in their country of origin, or in another country do not have to start from the beginning when learning to read in English at school. As stated by Lanauze and Snow (1989), “Language skills acquired in a first language can, at least if developed beyond a certain point in L1 [first language], be recruited at relatively early stages of L2 [second language] acquisition for relatively skilled performance in L2, thus shortcutting the normal developmental progression in L2” (p. 337).

When biliteracy is fostered, literacy skills and strategies used in one language transfer to the other -- especially when both languages use the same writing system. For example, children whose first language is Spanish, French, Italian, German, or Portuguese can identify some of the letters and sounds in English since all these languages use the Roman alphabet. Children literate in languages that use non-Roman alphabets, such as Russian or Mandarin Chinese, have additional challenges when learning English. Yet, even when the vocabulary, grammar, and orthography differ, a whole range of skills in decoding and reading strategies transfer from the first language to the second. Children who are literate in one language already know that print carries meaning, that the stream of print is broken into segments such as words or characters, and that there are rules about how print is laid out on the page. Specific examples of transferable concepts and strategies include scanning, skimming, contextual guessing at words, tolerance for ambiguity, reading for meaning, skipping unknown words, monitoring, recognizing textual structure, and using previous learning and background knowledge to understand text (Baker, 1998; Calero-Breckheimer & Goetz, 1993; Jiménez, García & Pearson, 1995).

Maintaining L1 literacy has also been associated with better overall academic performance, mastery of English, and diminished dropout rates for ESL students who speak minority languages (Ramirez, 1992; Thomas & Collier, 1996). Thus, supporting the development of biliteracy is crucial in preparing students from minority language backgrounds to succeed in educational settings.

For children learning a second langauge, having opportunities to read materials in their first language can serve to affirm that they are good readers, even though they may struggle when they read English (Ernst & Richard, 1995). The benefits also can include increased enthusiasm and comprehension in students. Diane, one of our graduate students, worked with a nine-year-old boy who had moved to the United States from the Ukraine. He read aloud softly and slowly from an English-language trade book on frogs, but his eyes lit up when Diane surprised him with a Russian version of the same book. After he quickly and enthusiastically read it in Russian, he showed excitement and a thorough understanding when he discussed the content of the book with Diane in English. But it is not only L2 students who benefit from having access to a vast array of reading materials in different languages. The presence of such reading materials sends clear messages to all students -- L1 and L2 alike -- about the status that schools and teachers attach to other languages (Edwards & Walker, 1995).

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Bilingual Books

Since the early 1980s, an increasing number of books that include more than one language have been published in the United States. Although most bilingual books are intended for the large Latino population, U.S. publishers are beginning to produce small numbers of titles in languages such as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Urdu. These books come in different formats, five of which are listed below. These formats are illustrated by manipulating and adapting the text and illustrations from a forthcoming book by Ernst-Slavit and Slavit, entitled P Is for Peru: The ABC of Peru.

1. Books with the complete text in two languages (e.g., Harriet Rohmer’s Uncle Nacho’s Hat/El sombrero de Tio Nacho)
   
   Figure 1
   A Page from P Is for Peru, Illustrating Parallel Use of Two Languages
   
   
   
   
2. Books published in different versions for each language (e.g., Gary Soto’s Too Many Tamales and the Spanish equivalent, Qué montón de tamales)
   
   Figure 2
   Covers of the English (left) and Spanish (right) Versions of P Is for Peru
   
                 
   
   
3. Books that switch between languages (e.g., Lynn Reiser’s Margaret and Margarita)
   
   Figure 3
   A Page from P Is for Peru, Illustrating Alternating Use of Languages
   
   
   
   
4. Books in English, interspersed with words or phrases in another language (e.g., Arthur Dorros’ Isla)
   
   Figure 4
   A Page from P Is for Peru, Illustrating Occasional Use of a Second Language
   
   
   
   
5. Books available only in a language other than English (e.g., Juan Ramon Jiménez’s Platero y yo). Note that these books are sometimes called “bilingual,” though they appear in only one language.
   
   

There are several important characteristics to consider when selecting bilingual books for the classroom. Elements including the design of the book (e.g., one chapter in one language, the next in another), publishing origin (e.g., commercial, imported, or “homemade” translations in which text in another language in inserted, in addition to or to replace the English text), layout (e.g., one language at the top, the picture in the middle, the other language at the bottom), and production quality should be examined.

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Strategies for Using Bilingual Books in the Classroom

Given the changing demographics in the United States, bilingual books must be available in all classrooms. The presence of these books suggests that teachers value other languages and cultures (Ernst-Slavit, 1997) and provides an effective tool for raising all students’ awareness of diversity by exposing them to different scripts and languages.

We recommend bilingual books as effective tools for fostering second-language and literacy development for a variety of learners (e.g., emergent readers, fluent readers), in a variety of settings (e.g., shared reading, silent reading), and with a variety of interactive formats (e.g., parents or older peers as story readers or tellers). In our careers, we have used or observed others using bilingual books in the ways summarized in Table 1. Each of these strategies is discussed in further detail below the table.

Introducing a topic. Literature that relates thematically to a new unit or lesson can serve well to acquaint a beginning English language learner with the topic at hand. At the beginning of her unit on immigration, Paloma, a third-grade teacher with six newly arrived Spanish-speaking students, had her class read either Riki Levison’ Mira, c—mo salen las estrellas or the English version, Watch the Stars Come Out, a book about two children coming alone to the United States in the early 1900s on a large ship with other immigrants. The next day Paloma read Eve Bunting’s How Many Days to America in English to the whole class, and asked students to identify differences and similarities between the two stories. The Spanish-speaking students were able to participate actively because the Spanish version of Levinson’s book had provided a context and some vocabulary needed to understand the English-only reading of the second book.

Supporting transfer of reading in L1 to L2. Children who are able to read in their first language and have learned some oral English benefit from taking turns reading aloud a bilingual book with an English speaker. Yesenia, a seven-year-old in second grade who had learned to read in Spanish, read the Spanish parts of the book Margaret and Margarita, while one of us read the English parts. After we repeated this process three times at her request, she exclaimed that she was ready to read the whole book, and proceeded to read both languages, closely approximating the English text. Again, having previous knowledge of the content of the book provided the bridge Yesenia needed to feel successful in reading English for the first time without formal instruction.

Supporting independent reading. In the early stages of English acquisition, students are often plagued with feelings of frustration and exhaustion because they must function in a language and culture that are unfamiliar. Books in the native language might serve well to soothe those feelings. San-ha, a ten-year-old Korean boy, often read in Korean the well-worn bilingual book about Ultraman, a Japanese cartoon character. When interviewed two years later, San-ha explained that reading in Korean reassured him that he was not “dumb,” even though he was struggling with reading in English.

Using L1 version as a preview. Depending on the circumstances (e.g., degree of L1 literacy, availability of personnel), students can read or have someone read to them the L1 version of a book in order for them to gain understanding of the content. Later, when the teacher presents the new book to the whole class in English, ESL students will be able to focus on aspects of the story beyond literal comprehension. Middle schooler Carlos enjoyed reading La casa en Mango Street, the Spanish translation of The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros. Doing so ensured that he could participate actively in the class discussion about the book -- even though the discussion was entirely in English.

Using L1 version as a review. After a book has been read and discussed in the English, L2 learners can use the L1 version to write about the theme, review issues discussed, or further their understanding of the plot, setting, characters, and sequence. It is not difficult to imagine how Carlos might have used La casa en Mango Street to clarify questions about content.

Reading two versions for self-assessment. Young L2 learners enjoy finding out how much English they are learning by counting the words they understand before and after the book is read in the L1 and discussed in the L2. Marisol, a first grader from Bolivia, often spent her recess counting the number of English words she understood in a new story her teacher was about to introduce to the whole class. And she was always delighted when she found out how many more words she knew after the lesson and her own reading in Spanish.

Comparing and contrasting cognates. For students with a Romance (e.g., Portuguese) or Germanic (e.g., German) L1, finding cognates in the L2 (i.e., words that are written similarly in the L1 and L2 such as the English station and the Italian stazione) might be a rewarding activity in the early stages of second-language acquisition. In addition, comparing and contrasting words in the children’s native language with new English words can contribute to an increase in word recognition, vocabulary development, phonic analysis, and structural analysis (Schirmer, Casbon, & Twiss, 1996).

Improving home-school connections. Parents, siblings, and other family members can be actively involved in the education of ESL students -- even if their own English skills are limited -- by reading the L1 versions of bilingual books. Ten-year old Mikiko described how much she enjoyed having her mother read over and over the Japanese version of Fumiko Takeshita and Mamoru Suzuki’s The Park Bench. Parents, community members, and former students can also participate in producing books on tapes in different languages. On one side can be the English version and, on the other side, a version in another language (both recorded by native speakers). Children can contribute by designing inserts and covers for the tape boxes.

Supporting family literacy programs. A great way to start a family literacy program for parents of ESL students is by assisting parents in locating books in their L1. Ada (1986, 1988) implemented a family literacy program with Latino parents in Pájaro Valley, California, USA. Each month, approximately 60 parents gathered in the public library to examine books critically and to discuss their children’s writing. Parents were then given books to read in Spanish to their children at home. If the parents could not read, they used the illustrations in the books to guide them. After they discussed these books with their children, the parents encouraged their children to do their own writing, which they then shared at the next monthly meeting. By the end of the project all participants -- parents and children alike -- had gained literacy skills.

Raising all children’s awareness of multiculturalism. Bilingual books and dictionaries, along with books and materials in languages other than English, can raise all children’s awareness of different cultures through exposure to a variety of languages and scripts. Jesús, a Mexican American second grader, said he wanted to learn Chinese after hearing Tong-bin read the Chinese version of Marcus Pfister’s The Rainbow Fish.

Helping teachers learn another language. Bilingual books can help teachers and others learn some words in students’ native languages. Ji-hae, an eight-year-old from Korea, waited with excitement for her weekly reading session with a senior citizen who volunteered in her classroom. On those occasions, Ji-hae and “Grandma,” as the students called her, took turns teaching English and Korean to each other.

Encouraging reading for pleasure. Krashen (1985) claims that sustained reading of self-selected material changes students into “good readers, pretty good writers, and better spellers” (p. 176). One way for students to obtain sufficient amounts of written input to have these results is through pleasure reading. Ana, a 14-year-old from Mexico who initially read books because her literature teacher required it, became so interested in reading that she soon was enjoying books about every subject. Reflecting on the benefits she received, Ana related that reading changed her life (Ernst-Slavit, Moore, & Maloney, 2002).

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Final Thoughts: Some Cautions

Bilingual books can play an important part in supporting ESL students’ language and literacy learning. Children who learn to read in their native language do not need to relearn to read in English, since many of the processes involved in decoding text and understanding print relationships transfer from the L1 to English. In addition, children benefit not only by speaking their L1, but, most important, by reading literature in their own langauge that reflects their own cultures. As Baker (1993) strongly argues, "Literacy in the minority language not only provides a greater chance of survival at an individual and group level for that language. It may also encourage feelings of rootedness, self-esteem, the vision and world-view of one’s heritage culture, self-identity and intellectual empathy” (p. 202).

As with almost every aspect of bilingual education, the use of bilingual books is not without controversy. After thorough reviews of dual-language books, Edwards and collaborators (Edwards, 1998; Multilingual Resources for Children Project, 1995; Walker, Edwards, & Blacksell, 1996) noted problems surrounding the using such texts. In terms of typography in these books, one script often takes precedence or is given higher status than the other: presentation of the two languages may differ in font size, boldness, or spacing between lines. Another problem is the difference in type quality between the two scripts, especially noticeable when a language that uses a non-Roman alphabet appears next to a language that uses a Roman alphabet. Directionality poses a serious challenge when designing books in languages that are read differently (e.g., while English is read from left to right, Urdu is read from right to left). Further problems in terms of the status afforded each language are posed by the way the two languages are placed on a page, whether one is printed and the other typed or handwritten, whether the title is in one or two languages, and the order in which the languages appear.

Translating texts can also pose problems. At times, translations may not do justice to the quality of the writing, the authenticity of the storyline, and style of the language used. One further concern is the use of materials plagued with stereotypes and inaccuracies about a particular culture. Cruz-Jansen (1995-1996), for example, has highlighted some of the biases and myths about Puerto Ricans and Latinos that appear in “multicultural” books.

We recommend that, whenever possible, teachers who do not speak the languages of their students have bilingual books previewed by native speakers for accuracy of translation and content. Published reviews of books and knowledge of publishers that produce high-quality books are also helpful when selecting books; review sources and some publishers are listed in Table 2. Teachers could also include their students in discussions of problematic aspects of books, helping them critique authors, translators, and illustrators as they learn to select quality books themselves.

In spite of these challenges, the use of bilingual books can assist all teachers (including those who are monolingual), promote multiple literacies, and encourage the valuing of diversity of languages, cultures, and scripts among all students. One only has to see the look on children’s faces and listen to the stories teachers and graduate students share to realize the benefit of using bilingual books.

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References

Ada, A.F. (1986). Creative education for bilingual teachers. Harvard Educational Review, 56(4), 386-394.
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Ada, A.F. (1988). The Pájaro Valley experience: Working with Spanish-speaking parents to develop children’s reading and writing skills in the home through the use of children’s literature. In: T. Skutnabb-Kangas & J. Cummins (Eds.), Minority education: From shame to struggle. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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Ada, A.F. (1995). Fostering the home-school connection. In J. Frederickson (Ed.), Reclaiming our voices: Bilingual education, critical pedagogy and praxis. Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education. Available (retrieved August 2003): www.osi.hu/iep/minorities/resbook1/Fostering.htm
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Au, K.H. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural settings. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
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Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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Baker, C. (1998). Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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Calero-Breckheimer, A., & Goetz, E.T. (1993). Reading strategies of biliterate children for English and Spanish texts. Reading Psychology, 14(3), 177-204.
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Collier V.P. (1992). A synthesis of studies examining long-term language minority student data on academic achievement. Bilingual Research Journal, 16(1-2), 187-212.
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Corsaro, J. (1997). Pat Mora. Book Links, 7(1), 25-30.
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Cruz-Jansen, M.I. (1995-1996). The language bias of political control and power. NCSEE News: Publication of the National Coalition for Sex Equity in Education, 2(Winter).
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Cummins, J. (1991). Interdependence of first- and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children (pp. 165-176). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Edwards, V. (1998). The power of Babel. Staffordshire, UK: Trentham.
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Edwards, V., & Walker, S. (1995). Building bridges: Multilingual resources for children. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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Ernst, G., & Richard, K. (1995). Reading and writing pathways to conversation in the ESL classroom. The Reading Teacher, 48(4), 320-326.
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Ernst-Slavit, G. (1997). Different words, different worlds: Language use, power and authorized language in a bilingual classroom. Linguistics and Education, 9, 25-47.
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Ernst-Slavit, G., Moore, M., & Maloney, C. (2002). Changing lives: Teaching English and literature to ESL students. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 48(2), 118-128.
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Gutierrez, K.D. (1992). A comparison of instructional contexts in writing process classrooms with Latino children. Education and Urban Society, 24(2), 244-262.
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Hakuta, K. (1986). Mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: Basic Books.
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Hakuta, K., & Diaz, R.M. (1984). The relationship between degree of bilingualism and cognitive ability: A critical discussion and some longitudinal data. In K.E. Nelson (Ed.), Children’s language (vol. 5, pp. 319-344). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Jiménez, R.T., García, G.E., & Pearson, P.D. (1995). Three children, two languages, and strategic reading: Case studies in bilingual/monolingual reading. American Educational Research Journal, 32(1), 67-97.
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Krashen, S.D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. New York: Longman.
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Krashen, S., & Biber, D. (1988). On course: Bilingual education’s success in California. Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.
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Lanauze, M., & Snow, C. (1989). The relation between first- and second-language writing skills: Evidence from Puerto Rican elementary school children in bilingual programs. Linguistics and Education, 1, 323-339.
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Multilingual Resources for Children Project. (1995). Building bridges: Multilingual resources for children. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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Ovando, C.J., & Collier, V. (1998). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teaching in multicultural contexts (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Ramirez, J.D. (1992). Executive summary of the final report: Longitudinal study of structured English immersion strategy, early-exit and late-exit transitional bilingual programs for language minority students. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, 1-62.
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Schirmer, B.R., Casbon, J., & Twiss, L.L. (1996). Innovative literacy practices for ESL learners. The Reading Teacher, 49(5), 412-414.
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Thomas, W.P., & Collier, V. (1997). Language minority student achievement and program effectiveness. NABE News, 19, 33-35.
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Walker, S., Edwards, V., & Blacksell, R. (1996). Designing bilingual books for children. Visible Language, 30, 268-283.
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About the Authors

	Gisela Ernst-Slavit is the director of the Department of Education and a professor at Washington State University-Vancouver, USA. She earned her Ph.D. from the University of Florida. Her research interests include teacher education, oracy and literacy development, bilingual and ESL education, and the use of ethnographic and sociolinguistic perspectives in the study of classrooms. She is past-president of the Washington Association for the Education of Speakers of Other Languages (WAESOL), has received the College of Education Excellence Award in Research, and has published in the The Reading Teacher, the Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Anthropology and Education Quarterly, Linguistics & Education, TESOL Quarterly, TESOL Journal, Qualitative Studies in Education, Hispania, and the Foreign Language Annals, among several others journals. She is a native of Peru who was raised speaking three languages.
	Margaret Mulhern worked as a professor of bilingual education for eight years, most recently at Boise State University. She earned her doctorate from the University of Illinois at Chicago. Her areas of specialization include emergent literacy in Spanish, children’s literature, and multicultural education. She has published in Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, Bilingual Research Journal, Language Arts, and The Reading Teacher. Currently, she is raising two children and working as a part-time teacher and consultant for elementary Spanish language programs.

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Authors’ note: Our sincere thanks to Gail Conners-Junker, Carol Maloney, Eric Walla, and Kathleen Wiederhold for their technical and editorial assistance.

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Citation: Ernst-Slavit, G., & Mulhern, M. (2003, September/October). Bilingual books: Promoting literacy and biliteracy in the second-language and mainstream classroom. Reading Online, 7(2). Available: http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=ernst-slavit/index.html

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Posted September 2003
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