Internet-Based Activities for Literacy Learning
At the organizational level, the education community’s efforts to include technology goals in the curriculum aim to promote conditions conducive to digital learning, an “educational approach that integrates technology, connectivity, content and human resources. When implemented correctly, it builds on the unique, dynamic characteristics of digital content to create productive and engaging learning environments” (CEO Forum, 2000, p. 7). Digital learning is linked closely to digital literacy, or “the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers” (Gilster, 2000, p. 215). Seamless integration of word processing, hypermedia authoring tools, and telecommunications through the Internet facilitates and supports digital literacy on many levels.
Telecommunications and the Internet provide access to information, phenomena and events as they occur in real time, and social communities not available through print-based curriculum materials (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1997; Riel & Harasim, 1994; Romiszowski, 1997). Internet-based reading and writing require students to apply knowledge of media structure and grammar, current social literary conventions, and information literacy skills to create and share multimedia texts with teachers, peers, and authentic audiences outside the classroom. The following sections explain findings from our study related to three curricular areas: information research on the Internet, participating in online learning communities, and electronic writing and Web publishing.
Information Research on the Internet
Very little research has been conducted regarding the processes involved in reading electronic texts (Kamil & Intrator, 1997; Reinking & Bridwell-Bowles, 1996). In fact, “the proportion of research articles published on technology and literacy remained relatively constant over 11 years [between 1986-96]” in disproportion to the investment in technology resources, according to a trend analysis conducted by Kamil and Intrator (p. 394).
Research in this area is difficult given the wide range of media characteristics and lack of standard literary conventions applied in electronic texts. Existing research findings about reading hypermedia (multimedia hypertext) are mixed. Heller (1990) reviewed early studies conducted on the role of hypermedia in education, which indicated problems of disorientation, cognitive overload, flagging commitment, and unmotivated rambling among readers. Similar problems also may occur with Internet users. Heller identified a browsing strategy of following links perceived to be relevant as ineffective for novice hypertext or hypermedia information researchers. Novices may be unable “to formulate a search objective and thereby...unable to take advantage of the richness of the [hypermedia] system” (Heller, p. 433).
These findings from early research on digital content suggest the need for users to develop specific skills with Internet search engines. Search engines are used by about 85 percent of users to locate information; several search engines consistently rank among the top 10 sites accessed on the Web, yet none captures any more than a small portion of the information available (Lawrence & Giles, 1999). The implications of the ever-increasing reservoir of Web-based resources and the complexity for teachers and students of locating and navigating those resources are unknown. However, correlations have been drawn between the specific skill of being able to use Web search engines and teacher and student use of the Internet (Becker, 1999). Researchers’ perspectives. Beyond the most basic skills involved in Internet research (such as using search engines effectively for keyword searches), researchers interviewed for this study listed higher level capabilities students need. One researcher pointed out that before students can begin making queries on the Internet, they must have fundamental library skills. Without an understanding of sources, students are overwhelmed by the information available online. Another researcher emphasized that students need metacognitive, knowledge-building skills. They must know how to go about finding and judging information, and they must recognize the biases they have that will influence their searches. Another researcher noted the importance of recognizing conventions such as how webpages are structured with links, advertisements, and icons. The researchers also focused on how teachers could help students learn how to conduct searches and to evaluate sources. The majority of the researchers favored a “scaffolding” approach to teaching students how to search on the Internet: providing students with fundamental support before throwing them into the online environment. Most felt that, particularly in the early grades, it is important for teachers to conduct their own searches first, in order that they can give students some guidance. However, the researchers also noted that the ultimate goal is for students to be able to negotiate the Web on their own. In a similar vein, one researcher suggested a strategy of experimentation: She encourages teachers to allow students to discover what happens if they enter a general keyword such as “snakes,” and then to see how the search results differ if the query is refined. In addition, the researchers agreed that teaching students to evaluate sources is both extremely important and difficult to accomplish. One researcher proposed having students develop a list of criteria to apply to different websites. Another recommended a new chat program that attaches to the bottom of any site and allows students to discuss the site’s content and presentation. Teachers’ perspectives. The teachers interviewed and observed in this study provided a long list of skills students need to conduct Internet research well. Some mentioned the importance of beginning with a good guiding question to help students stay focused when faced with the volume of information available on the Internet. Several cited such technical skills as navigating site maps, using the “find” function, and conducting a keyword search using a search engine. Others mentioned analytical skills such as choosing an appropriate search tool, sorting through large amounts of information quickly, organizing a large volume of information, determining the validity of a site, and recognizing the pertinence of information. Many were concerned that students be able to develop a bibliography. The skills mentioned by teachers in the interviews were incorporated into the online survey (Figure 1). Table 4 shows how the 56 survey respondents ranked various skills. Because most teachers interviewed for this study use the Internet primarily as a research tool, they had many ideas about how to teach online research skills (see, for example, a classroom case on a team-teaching approach to Internet-based research). Most agreed with the researchers that conducting an initial search themselves was important, particularly in the early grades or at the beginning of the school year. Several also favored using an overhead projector to demonstrate how to refine a keyword search, use links and a site map, use the “back” and “find” functions, and cut and paste information into a word-processing document. Others mentioned teaching students by demonstrating how to use different search engines and how to bookmark important sites. One teacher observed for the study spent 10 minutes at the beginning of class using an overhead projector to show her fifth-grade students how to sift through the information on a website similar to one they would be visiting to collect information about an invention. She pointed out advertisements, links, and the additional facts listed at the bottom of the page. To help students learn to evaluate online sources, several teachers indicated that they led their students to hoax sites. Others emphasized the difference between commercial and noncommercial sites by discussing dot.com, dot.org, and dot.gov domain names. One teacher requires his students to find information from at least two sources before using it, while another believes that having students present their final work to the class and explain their choices helps them reflect on the search process. Most of the teachers interviewed agreed that a significant challenge is teaching students to record Web information accurately in reference lists. During an observation of an 11th-grade class beginning a weeklong research project, it was apparent that many students were not taking the time to record their Web sources as they collected information, despite the teacher’s reminders to do so. Several teachers worried about students’ tendency to plagiarize, raising the importance of discussing ethical issues when students are engaging in Internet-based curricular activities. Participating in Online Learning Communities Among the primary goals of the composition curriculum in the upper grades has been to introduce students to the discourse communities of the culture and academia, and to enable them to partake in these communities (Balester, Halasek, & Peterson, 1992; Hawisher, 1990; Probst, 1990). Nonacademic forms of literacy also play a role in how preteens and teens establish and maintain group affiliations (Finders, 1997). Research shows a difference between computer-mediated communication patterns and verbal, face-to-face communication patterns found in discourse about information (Cognitive and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1997; Geisler, 1994; Riel & Harasim, 1994); the role of the teacher also changes (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt; Riel & Harasim). In online discourse communities, discussions often focus on analyzing, questioning, debating, and generating disciplinary knowledge through collaborative writing activities with professionals. These online communications can greatly enhance the perspectives and thought processes that challenge students engaging in literacy learning events. The number of online communication tools and groups is growing exponentially. Although gaining Internet skills will give students access to valuable information and discourse groups, a typing error or innocent information disclosure can open doors to trouble. Research shows that criminals have easy access to children through online chat rooms and that they interact with children online in order to lure them into unsafe situations (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2000, online document). Researchers’ perspectives. The complicated nature of online communication was reflected in the comments of both the researchers and teachers interviewed. Although several interviewees mentioned the importance of fundamental writing skills -- clarity of expression, grammar, and spelling -- they felt that communicating online poses unique challenges. Some researchers noted that students must understand the level of formality of a situation in order to create a positive online relationship, particularly when they are asking for information or responding critically to another person’s work. One researcher said that it is important that students be able to compare their questions with the information they receive and refine their questions if necessary. One researcher described a technique used to involve students in an online learning community; see the classroom case on virtual travel to ancient Rome. Teachers’ perspectives. Like many of the survey respondents, most of the teachers interviewed had not had their students participate in online communities. This was either because their schools’ acceptable-use policies did not allow students to have e-mail accounts or participate in chat rooms, or they had never explored this possibility and preferred to use the Internet as a research and publishing tool. Among those who did allow their students to use e-mail, some mentioned that students need to be aware of the difficulty in conveying emotions online, and that they must be able to add detail when asked for clarification. In addition, teachers echoed the researchers’ comments about the importance of understanding the audience and adopting an appropriate level of formality for the context. Because most teachers interviewed did not have their students participate in online communities, very few were able to comment on how to teach students these skills. Electronic Writing and Web Publishing The other side of the Internet-based research coin is Web publishing. The Internet is making it possible to circumvent the cycle of the print publishing industry, where in some disciplines it can take three to five years before a work appears in a journal or book. Technology provides tools -- including database and word-processing software and hypertext, multimedia, and programming packages -- for authors to construct and present meaningful information resources to others. Because of the relative ease of Internet publication, the volume of content learners encounter is steadily increasing. It has been predicted that the Internet will expand by 1,000 percent during the next few years (Barrie & Presti, 1996). Many Web resources contain a vast variety of up-to-date information in almost every academic discipline, though significant portions of the Web do not offer meaningfully organized content. The complexity of the Web constitutes its strength and characterizes its weakness for teachers and students involved in literacy learning. In a study from the early 1990s, strong keyboarding and word-processing skills were shown to have a significant positive effect on standardized writing assessment measures of eighth-grade students (Owston, Murphy, & Wideman, 1992). Owston and his colleagues concluded that abilities in online manipulation of text are important for electronic writing tasks. Without them, writing on screen may carry a heavier cognitive load for students than does the use of paper and pen. This contradicts the once-popular belief that word processing automatically lightens the cognitive load on students (Joram, Woodruff, Bryson, & Lindsay, 1992). More recent case studies of students who shared research and engaged in debate with distant readers via the Internet cite teachers’ purposes for using digital tools and online resources (Garner & Gillingham, 1998): Researchers’ perspectives. A common theme about Web publishing among the researchers interviewed was responsibility. As one researcher said, students need to be aware of the impact they have on others and to take their work seriously, not just in terms of proper use of grammar, spelling, and expression, but also in terms of audience awareness. Another researcher stressed the dynamic nature of Web publishing: She believes that it should be a social process and that students should learn to solicit and incorporate the comments of others. Another researcher commented that students need media literacy skills: They should understand that images can be persuasive and be able to combine text, graphics, and sound in engaging and compelling ways. Teachers’ perspectives. Interviews with teachers yielded a list of specific technical and organizational skills that they feel students should learn in order to design effective webpages. Several mentioned basic writing and typing skills as a foundation for publishing on the Web. In addition, teachers mentioned the ability to map and outline information as part to the design process, and to integrate images with text and use fonts, colors, and graphics effectively. Understanding and judiciously placing links was mentioned, as was the need to present information succinctly. One teacher uses the rule that webpage text should be half the length of paper text. As a final note, a few teachers mentioned the importance of student collaboration in producing Web content, in terms of both actual production and participation in a peer-review process. Researchers and teachers agreed about the value of group publishing projects in which students contribute to one another’s knowledge about a topic. Many teachers assign group projects and allow students to pick roles within the group. They stress that each group should map and outline their webpage in order to present information in an organized and effective way. Teachers also encourage students to use peer review as an editing tool (see the classroom case on the challenges of Web publishing). During one observation, tenth-grade students were assigned to groups with each member determining what role he or she would play in putting together a webpage about a historical figure. Two students chose to research written information, another collected images, and the fourth wrote the content for the page. As a context for publishing activities, the teachers interviewed stress that students are exposing their work to a real audience. One teacher prepares her students by having them analyze the design and content features of existing websites. The students then use the criteria they develop as critics to judge their own products. Internet-Related Instructional Strategies The literature is steeped in calls for professional development of teachers in learner-centered practices that can align uses of the Internet with systemic reform initiatives. The teachers in Garner and Gillingham’s (1998) case studies about Internet use in the classroom were found to be changing their instructional practices to be more learner centered. One major shift involved students becoming more knowledgeable about a topic under investigation than the teacher. Students and teachers found themselves grappling with the complexity of competing perspectives and conflicting facts found on the Internet, as opposed to the certainties presented in many textbooks. In this regard, Internet-based curricular activities challenged teachers to provide students with skills of evaluation, including the ability to identify and assess reasons for bias and to locate corroborative detail across accounts. Garner and Gillingham concluded that the extent to which students use the Internet as a tool for literacy learning remains largely dependent on teachers’ instructional practices. As instructional and curricular changes occur within the classroom, assessment changes are called for as well. It is vital for leaders in education to identify and select newer standardized tests that fit appropriately with the school community’s or district’s learning goals and that measure the effects of the technologies used. Linn, Baker, and Dunbar (1991) suggest that alternative forms of assessment need to be used to ascertain such things as the degree to which performance on specific tasks transfers to other tasks, the cognitive complexity of students’ processes for solving meaningful problems, and intended as well as unintended consequences of the learning process. In addition, alternative assessment may be most suitable for conducting meaningful research about relationships between technology and student achievement (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1999). Leu and Kinzer (2000) predict that literacy assessments will soon include measuring the ability to adapt to technological changes and to use technologies for information and communication purposes. Principles of learner-centered education are embedded within the new National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) for Teachers (ISTE, 2000). Teachers who achieve these standards are able to maximize the return on technology investments. Their practices focus on designing, implementing, and assessing students’ digital learning. The following sections highlight our findings from researchers and teachers about instructional strategies used to conduct the Internet-based curricular activities. Researchers’ perspectives. The researchers interviewed noted a number of interesting differences and similarities between Internet- and print-based instruction of reading and writing. According to one researcher, the largest shift now occurring has to do with moving away from the idea that information should be bundled into packages such as textbooks. Instead, students must sort through multiple sources for themselves, and teachers must teach students how to evaluate information on their own. Traditional literacy programs, she says, focus on teaching students to enjoy reading rather than to read in different ways for different purposes. Another researcher stressed the magnitude of change in instructional practices that is required for effective Internet use and did not recommended “bracketing” the Internet as a special tool for use in computer class, but rather as a resource for use across the curriculum. Researchers offered several pieces of advice on successfully planning Internet-based activities for the classroom. One emphasized that teachers’ filtering and judging of websites in advance of an activity can make Internet use much more productive for students. Two of the researchers noted that teachers should not aim to create “packaged instruction,” but to develop an environment in their classrooms that encourages and facilitates the exploration the Internet facilitates. By asking students to pose their own problems, develop theories, collect information, and build understanding as a community, teachers make the most of the Internet’s possibilities. Although researchers often expressed the value of the Internet as a tool for collaboration, one argued that students also need time to explore on their own. Another researcher also urged teachers to teach parents how they can reinforce the importance of using the Internet responsibly, judging content astutely, and so on. Researchers interviewed also noted that teachers play several roles in effective Internet-based instruction. Since much Internet learning is self-directed, the teacher’s role changes to one of support and facilitation. Rather than dispensing information, the teacher becomes a learner alongside students in the classroom. Adopting such a role, said one researcher, requires an underlying philosophy of learning that encourages inquiry. At the same time, teachers should not lose sight of their role as guide -- even when students may be more technically proficient. This facilitator-guide role, one researcher noted, adds “enormous complexity” for teachers. While they must ensure that students remain safe, teachers make the most of the Internet when they expose them to different sources of information, researchers said. Organizing information in “manageable chunks,” particularly for lower grades, is also an important teacher function, according to the researchers. Without such organization, one researcher remarked, the power of the Internet can be overwhelming. When it comes to assessing students, the researchers interviewed in agreed that Internet-based learning creates new challenges. In some respects, one suggested, the assessment challenge in Internet-based activities is the same as with any instructional approach -- most important is having a clear understanding of the essential skills being taught. Approaches to assessment should follow logically from that desired endpoint. Assessment, another researcher noted, should be very clear to students -- they always should understand the goals of an assignment. But defining these goals or endpoints presents complications. One researcher asked, “Do you evaluate where students went online, or what information they gathered? Do you penalize the person who explores and doesn’t gather as much written information, or the person who stays with an initial page and finds lots of written information?” In addition, since these researchers believe the skills required for effective use of the Internet differ in some ways from traditional skills, new assessments must be devised. In particular, the researchers suggested that it is important for teachers to assess Researchers offered some ideas for assessing these capabilities. For example, one suggested giving students a new e-mail program to work with in order to test their adaptability to new technologies. Another said that having students present their work and defend their research choices and revisions can be a means of assessing students’ examination of sources and their critical thinking skills. Teachers’ perspectives. Teachers interviewed for the project echoed many of the researchers’ comments about the changes in instruction brought about by the Internet. Some pointed out that in Internet-based instruction, students have more control over the learning process. As a result, the teachers focus less on conveying specific content and more on teaching problem-solving skills. As one teacher said, “I sometimes feel I am not really teaching.” Another remarked that Internet-based activities “put me on a more equal level with students, who are pursuing more individualized assignments.” Others reported engaging in more intense conversations with students about their learning, spending more time serving as a “coach,” and gaining flexibility to individualize instruction. The teachers cited a number of factors that help them determine when to use the Internet for instruction: The teachers also offered some practical suggestions for planning. They urged their peers to determine what skills they wanted students to learn in the activities, design handouts that give clear directions, and conduct initial Web searches themselves, build a website that gives students appropriate links, or design an online model that guides students through the assignment. They also said teachers should do assignments themselves first to determine how much time they require. The teachers cited several new approaches they follow during Internet activities: they lead students through assignments by projecting their computer screen onto a wall, and they look in on student work through their own computers. Some teachers mentioned that when they circulate in the room during Internet-based activities they would like to sit down and work with individuals, but they do not have time because so many students need their assistance. During the classroom observations for this study, we noted that the teachers spent considerable time walking around their classrooms, briefly answering student questions about process and technical issues. Generally, while they did so, two or three other students waited with hands raised to pose their own questions. According to one of the teachers we observed, Internet-based instruction is physically and mentally demanding. This may be because Internet-based instruction individualizes student learning. The researchers stressed that teachers have a responsibility to ensure that all students learn from the Internet-based activities they deploy. This responsibility is especially critical with what one researcher called “monastic learners” -- those who do well in an environment in which everyone does his or her own work without social interaction. The teachers pointed out a variety of ways in which they use the Internet to individualize instruction. They noted working one on one with students on projects, providing students with individual assignments, assigning group projects in which students choose their roles, modifying assignments for different levels of students, and designing open-ended assignments that allow students to pursue individual interests. One teacher handed an index card to each of her fourth-graders and asked them to complete one of three activities listed, each of which was designed to teach them to use an online thesaurus. Without explicitly saying that the tasks were at different levels, she was able to individualize the assignment so that each student worked at an appropriate level. The teachers also offered a list of capabilities they find important to assess in Internet-based instruction. In addition to echoing many of the researchers’ points, teachers noted the value of assessing the depth of the information students obtain, the quality of their written products, their ability to meet deadlines, and their ability to reflect on the process in a journal. One teacher also noted that in the spirit of the Internet’s collaborative features, peer review and comments from the public are important assessment tools for teachers to consider. We incorporated questions about these findings related to instructional practice in the online survey (Figure 1). The 56 survey respones indicated the following:
These survey results confirm points made by the teachers and researchers interviewed.
Mean of Surveyed Teachers’ (n = 56) Ranking of Importance of Internet Research Skills, on a Scale of 1 (not important) to 5 (very important)*Internet Research Skill Mean Ranking Recognizing how pertinent information is to a topic 4.6 Understanding the bias of any Web resource 4.5 Organizing a research question before beginning to gather information 4.5 Using search engines to identify sources relevant to a topic 4.5 Staying focused on the topic 4.4 Presenting electronic information succinctly 4.3 Organizing large volumes of information about a topic 4.3 Categorizing information on a topic 4.3 Assessing the reputation of a Web site’s publisher 4.2 Using Web conventions such as text links, site maps, or bookmarked Web addresses to navigate 4.1 * Data gathered from responses to Question 6 of the online survey (see Figure 1)
From “Literacy Learning on the Net: An Exploratory Study,” by M.L. McNabb, B. Hassel, & L. Steiner
Reading Online, June 2002
© 2002 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory