The use of a frame should always begin with discussion and teacher modelling before moving on to joint construction (teacher and students together) and then to the student undertaking writing supported by the frame. This oral, teacher-modelling, joint-construction pattern of teaching is vital, for it not only models the generic form and teaches the words that signal connections and transitions, but it also provides opportunities for developing students' oral language and their thinking. Some students, especially those with learning difficulties, may need many oral sessions and sessions in which their teacher acts as a scribe before they are ready to attempt their own framed writing.

It would be useful for teachers to make big versions of the frames for use in these teacher-modelling and joint-construction phases. These large frames can be used for shared writing. It is important that the child and the teacher understand that the frame is a supportive draft and that words may be crossed out or substituted. Extra sentences may be added or surplus starters crossed out. The frame should be treated as a flexible aid, not a rigid form.

We are convinced that writing in a range of genres is most effective if it is located in meaningful experiences. The concept of situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991) suggests that learning is always context dependent. For this reason, we have always used the frames within class topic work rather than in isolated study-skills lessons (Lewis & Wray, 1995). British primary-school teaching is still largely based on this model of curriculum planning, and we would argue very strongly for its potential effectiveness.

We do not advocate using the frames for the direct teaching of generic structures in skills-centred lessons. The frame itself is never a purpose for writing. There is much debate about the appropriateness of the direct teaching of generic forms (Barrs, 1991/92; Cairney, 1992) and we share many of the reservations expressed by such commentators. Our use of a writing frame has always arisen from students' having a purpose for undertaking some writing. The appropriate frame was then introduced if the students needed extra help.