Taking Computers Out of the Corner: Making Technology Work in the Classroom
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When computers first entered the classroom, they were hailed by many as a means by which students would thrive in a modern learning environment (Hawisher & Selfe, 1999; Snyder, 1999; Wenglinsky, 1998, online document). They would be highly motivating; they would allow students access to information that was previously unavailable; and they would promote a greater depth of understanding by allowing students to learn in ways previously unimagined (see, e.g., Papert, 1984). It soon became apparent that neither the simple presence of computers in the schools nor the sheer volume of information they allow students to access were enough to guarantee gains in students’ academic learning. In fact, initial attempts to introduce technology in the classroom were often met by application difficulties, such as poorly designed software and the inability to access the Internet. Effective implementation of technology-based instruction is, by necessity, dependent on the availability and quality of the computer hardware, their operating systems, and the software loaded on them (Rickelman & Caplan, 2000; Travers, 1999). Of equal importance is the fact that their successful integration depends on the comfort level and skills of the teachers and students who attempt to use them, along with the availability of support (Travers; Thurlow, 2000). Despite instructional technology’s somewhat bumpy start in the classroom, however, computer and Internet use is steadily becoming part of the educational landscape (Rowand, 2000, online document). The good news is that there are substantial benefits to the growing use of computers in education, and integration of computers into all aspects of the literacy curriculum is becoming increasingly feasible. A fundamental change that has allowed this to occur is that, while computers have become increasingly sophisticated, they have also become increasingly user friendly (Travers, 1999). This means that it is easier to use computers effectively in the classroom. Additionally, as technology proliferates in our modern society, both teachers and students are growing more comfortable with its use in daily life. And though there is no denying that a “digital divide” that correlates highly with socioeconomic status (SES) still exists, effective use of technology in schools is one way in which we can begin to narrow the gap between those who have easy access to computers in their homes and those who do not (Wenglinsky, 1998). |
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This article presents a series of examples in which classroom instruction effectively integrates technology into literacy learning. According to a recent U.S. Department of Education survey (Smerdon, Cronen, Lanahan, Anderson, Iannotti, Angeles, & Greene, 2000, online document), many teachers do not feel adequately prepared to exploit the full potential of computers in their classrooms. My hope is that this article will prove helpful to teachers who are searching for better ways to integrate computers and the Internet into their instruction. In order to meet this goal, I have identified examples of effective use of computer-based instruction with a literacy focus across various age groupings and subject areas. These examples are not meant to be prescriptive; rather, I encourage readers to evaluate the ideas presented and consider how they can compliment literacy learning, and then modify them in order to best meet the needs of the learners in their own classrooms.
Early Literacy
Linda Labbo has conducted a series of studies that look at ways in which one teacher has effectively integrated commercial computer programs into the literacy curriculum of a kindergarten classroom in a low SES community (e.g., Labbo, 1996; Labbo & Kuhn, 2000, online abstract). In the first scenario, the classroom teacher chose to make computers the focal point of her classroom in two ways. First, she demonstrated keyboarding skills and the usefulness of the computer during whole-class activities. This allowed her to model the connections between oral and written language that are apparent in both traditional print and electronic texts. Second, she designed one of the class centers around the computer, and children were given the opportunity to work with various software programs (particularly The Learning Company's Kid Pix and “talking book” versions of Janell Cannon’s Stellaluna and Marc Brown’ Arthur’s Teacher Trouble on compact disc), either independently or in pairs.The Kid Pix program provided the kindergartners with the opportunity to express their emerging literacy abilities through electronic text. For example, with the software, they began to make the kinds of speech-to-text connections that young learners make when using more traditional writing materials such as paper and pencils, crayons, or markers (Labbo & Kuhn, 1997). These explorations had the advantage of being easily modified, so that if a child decided that her expression was not exactly what she had hoped for, she could easily change her work or even begin again. On the other hand, if another child found that what he had created captured what he was attempting to express, he could save it or print it out as a permanent, tangible artifact of the work he had done.
The talking books acted as scaffolds for the children’s developing concepts of print (Labbo & Kuhn, 2000, online abstract). This occurred in ways similar to traditional adult-child print interactions, with the talking book taking the place of the skilled reader. In talking books, the text of the story is highlighted left to right on the computer screen, while the narrator reads expressively. However, there is an important caveat that must be considered when using such products: most talking books have an option that provides animation, which can distract students and cause them to lose track of the story. Some of the animation contributes to the story development, but on occasion it serves only as a diversion, leading to an incoherent sense of narrative. Therefore, if your goal in using this genre of computer software is to develop your students’ sense of story, I would recommend turning the “play” option off, at least initially (Labbo & Kuhn, 2000).
Although the activities described above were designed with kindergartners in mind, I believe that they can be easily modified for use with students throughout the early grades. For example, students at a number of grade levels can use Kid Pix to respond to stories through graphics and writing. Such an extension can be used after students complete their experiences with a talking book, following a traditional activity in which a teacher or older student reads a story aloud, or in response to a print-based text that a student is reading independently.
Further, talking books offer stories that appeal to students across ages. For instance, Arthur’s Teacher Trouble and Stellaluna are engaging for students from kindergarten through Grade 3. The format usually includes several repetitions of the story, which, coupled with the narrator’s expressive reading and the simultaneous highlighting of text, may well contribute to students’ development of automaticity and sense of prosody. Such interaction with text could benefit both struggling readers and students who are just beginning to develop fluency (Kuhn & Stahl, 2000, online PDF document).
Literature Study
The general category of literature study is well suited to applications of instructional technology. There are several ways in which Web sites, compact discs and computer software, and videos benefit students’ exploration of literary texts. One of the primary advantages of using technology within the literature curriculum involves its ability to present both audio and visual resources, thereby making the material more accessible to learners across a range of ages and reading levels. This can be especially useful for struggling readers who might find certain material inaccessible without support.
The study of Shakespeare, difficult for many students, offers a case in point. Several Web sites provide access to numerous resources that contribute to an understanding of Shakespeare’s works, life, and times (see, for example, Mr. William Shakespeare and the Internet, based at Palomar College in San Marcos, California, USA). And Shakespeare’s complete works are easily accessible at many sites on the Internet (see, e.g., the Internet Public Library’s Shakespeare Bookshelf). If your class is studying Hamlet, for example, students could find supportive resources at sites including one maintained by the Society for the Study of Hamlet, clicknotes.com’s Hamlet Navigator, or Introduction to Hamlet, based at Belgium’s Université de Liège. Each site provides a summary of the play, along with such features as character reviews and explorations of the play’s themes and subtexts (e.g., metaphysical doubt, Hamlet and madness, Hamlet and Oedipus, and Hamlet and ghosts).
Students could also log on to my favorite site for this play, Legends -- Shakespeare's Stories, which makes the most of the intertextual nature of the Internet. Here visitors can find links to information on the original Danish legend on which Hamlet is based, 16th-century texts on fencing, a site called “Surfing with the Bard,” and Renaissance Forum: An Electronic Journal of Early-Modern Literary and Historical Studies.
Finally, there are at least three easily available film versions of the play that students can view and compare: the 1948 Laurence Olivier version, which emphasizes the Oedipal relationship between Hamlet and his mother; the 1990 Franco Zeffirelli version with Mel Gibson, which showcases an accurate historical setting; and the 1996 Kenneth Branaugh version, the only one that presents the play in its entirety. The films provide students with an alternative format through which they can develop their understanding of the story, while at the same time demonstrating to them that a single text can yield multiple interpretations.
A second example of technological support for literature study is demonstrated with another text that students often find difficult: Beowulf. Because it is written in old English and a now unfamiliar genre, students (and teachers!) often struggle with this text. As with Hamlet, however, there are a number of useful Web sites that can help readers gain a deeper understanding of this piece. To begin, Pace University in Pleasantville, New York, offers a Beowulf site on one of its servers, where visitors can find information on “Beowulf for Beginners,” “Main Characters,” and “Beowulf’s Death.” Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., offers The Labyrinth, which provides a time line of British history, a map of Anglo-Saxon England, and information on Anglo-Saxon culture through links accessed by clicking on “Anglo-Saxon” under the “Subjects” heading.
The English Department at the University of Kentucky presents A Guide to Electronic Beowulf, where visitors can read an overview of a project in which new technologies are being applied to create images of the only surviving manuscript in the hope of developing a clearer sense of words that have been lost through centuries of damage. Available on two compact discs published by the British Library and the University of Michigan Press, The Electronic Beowulf features color facsimiles of the newly revealed text, along with transcripts from the 18th and 19th centuries.
Other Beowulf-related sites include further uses of new technologies. At Old English at the University of Virginia, for example, visitors can listen to selections read aloud and view a guide to the old English alphabet. A site called the “Culture Cafe” offers an illustrated version of Beowulf as translated by David Breeden of Texas’ Schreiner College, and the University of Toronto in Ontario, Canada, provides the old English version with interlinear modern translation.
Online Beowulf resources go beyond the text as written. Grendel’s Cave, a game site, allows players to fight their way through Hrothgar’s kingdom, and an illustrated parody housed on a Cornell University server in Ithaca, New York, tells the story with characters including Bill Clinton and the Cookie Monster, who provide light relief from the more traditional renderings. These resources give learners access to numerous interpretations of the text that an individual teacher, or even a group of teachers, would have difficulty providing in a traditional classroom environment.
Content Area Literacy
As students become increasingly proficient readers, the focus of literacy instruction shifts to development of their ability to learn from new material (Chall, 1996). Traditionally, this focus has begun in the middle and upper elementary grades (with learners of about 7 years of age) and continued through the high school years. Increasingly, however, younger students are being introduced to content area materials as part of their early literacy development (Cooper, 2000; Guillaume, 2000).
Computers can be extremely helpful in providing learners with opportunities to explore information across the curriculum in a highly motivating manner (Roe, 2000). For example, numerous multimedia encyclopedia are available on the Internet or on disc (e.g., those from Compton’s, Grolier, and Microsoft). These resources provide learners with multiple ways of exploring a given topic; if students want to learn about space shuttles, for example, they may be able to view blueprints from a number of angles, see a video clip of a launch, and hear an interview with a shuttle astronaut. The presentation of such varied information in such varied formats has the potential to provide students with a clearer understanding of the topic than they would develop through traditional texts.
In addition to these commercial resources, the amount of information freely available via the Internet is virtually limitless. For example, when I entered “geography” into a search engine, I found many sites that present a plethora of information, including several that provide excellent ideas for instructional activities (see, e.g., GIS Day, the Geography Network, and National Geographic). Further, the interactive nature of these sites has the potential to engage students with their research to a greater degree than would usually be the case with more traditional methods.
The Internet also has the advantage of providing current information. Web sites can be consistently updated in a manner traditional print-based texts are unable to match. For example, an online atlas can keep up with the creation and dissolution of nation-states in ways that simply are not be feasible with a book. While there are arguments against this ephemeral presentation, and I certainly don’t advocate discontinuing permanent records on any given subject, it is still exceedingly important for teachers to have access to accurate and up-to-date information when presenting material of a factual nature.
Integrated Units
Computer technology can also be invaluable in building an integrated literacy unit. Such a unit could encompass subjects as wide ranging as art, science, and social studies, and be built around several forms of technology. For example, in a unit on conservation and global warming, students could begin with a visit to the World Wildlife Fund Web site, read an Amazonian Indian legend at the Rainforest Alliance, explore changes in the climate caused by global warming, view recent changes in weather patterns at the Weather Channel Web site, look at the international political response, and explore tropical rainforests with the computer game The Amazon Trail (from Mattel Interactive).
To deepen understanding of the subject, students -- either individually, in pairs, or in small groups -- could be asked to choose a particular aspect of the environment and environmental change related to global warming to research. For example, students could research how automobiles contribute to the problem of global warming and how electric or hybrid cars could help counter these effects, or they could look at the changes in forested lands over the last 50 years and the possible ways this affects the atmosphere. Learners could research their respective topics on the Internet, write draft reports using a word-processing package, edit their work using the process writing approach, and produce a final draft as a collaborative text. They could place the completed product in the school or class library, create a hypertext presentation of the material, or create a Web site that allows other students to post messages and engage in dialogue on the issue.
Drawbacks
There are, of course, issues surrounding student access to potentially inappropriate Web sites (see, e.g., Dillon, 1999; Kinzer, 2000, online document), but there are a number of possible ways to handle this situation. Software and filters are available that minimize the chances of students wandering to, or intentionally searching for, objectionable sites; among them are Bess, Net Nanny, prducts from Pearl Software, and CYBERsitter. A second alternative is to allow students to use only search engines designed with safeguards in place, including those at the Yahooligans, Ask Jeeves for Kids, or lightdog sites. Another option is for the teacher to conduct a topic search and bookmark acceptable pages, making it clear to students that the bookmarks should be used in the assignment.
Further, teachers can print out appropriate material for an assignment and provide this for students, thus eliminating students’ direct Internet access. However, doing so also eliminates students’ opportunity to interact with a site and largely negates the opportunities provided by the Internet. Many sites, for example, are designed to take advantage of the online medium to provide animation, interactivity, and so on -- elements that are lost in print or still images (see, e.g., Marshall Brain’s How Stuff Works).
While there is a great deal of information available on the Web, students who have little experience evaluating text may believe that something on a Web site is legitimate simply by virtue of its being available. One obvious example involves students who may accept as fact information from sites that distort history based on racist ideology. This is an extreme situation (and one that can generally be avoided through the use of filtering software), but there are many more subtle examples of bias on Internet sites. For example, when exploring sites related to global warming for the unit I suggested above, I found two sources of information that looked, at first glance, as if they would present similar content: the Global Warming Information Page at globalwarming.org and the Global Warming Information Center at globalwarming.net. However, upon investigation, I found that the first presents a view of global warming as sensationalized, with links to pages about “Why We Shouldn’t Sweat Global Warming” and “The Cooler Head Coalition.” The second site, on the other hand, clearly adopts the perspective that global warming is a problem and presents links that show how readers can become involved in possible solutions. I found a third site, designed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, that states as one of its goals the provision of an objective view and notes that it strives “to present accurate information on the very broad issue of climate change and global warming in a way that is accessible and meaningful to all parts of society -- communities, individuals, business, public officials and governments.”
It is necessary that learners realize that they must make judgments about the accuracy of the resources they find on the Internet and must be aware of the biases that sites present, whether these are stated or not. As critical thinkers students must also understand their own roles in interpreting what they find. For example, I consider global warming to be a real and serious problem, and the Web sites that I highlighted earlier in this article promote this perspective.
It is imperative that we, as instructors, assist students in their negotiation through diverse and conflicting material on the Internet. Central to this is our ability to help students become critical readers by teaching them to question the accuracy and biases of any text. In content area classes where a single textbook is often the primary, if not the only, source of information, students may accept the author’s perspective as unbiased and come to see what is written as innately accurate (Bigelow, 1989; Hoffman, 1992; Stahl, Hynd, Montgomery, & McClain, 1997). Such a belief -- that something written is inherently correct -- can easily be transferred to the Internet. While this is worrisome under any circumstance, it is especially troubling when dealing with Web sites, where it is relatively easy for anyone to present as fact whatever information or opinion they choose.
We can have a great deal of influence on how students learn to read a variety of texts -- not only on the Internet, but in traditional print sources as well. We can begin by using multiple resources with varying perspectives on a given subject, though this on its own is not enough. For example, Stahl, Hynd, Britton, McNish, and Bosquet (1996) presented 17-year-old students in an advanced history course with a series of documents about the Gulf of Tonkin incident, one of the key events in the escalation of the Vietnam War. The documents presented a wide variety of perspectives on the subject in a hypermedia context, and the students were asked to read, evaluate, and synthesize the sources. The students failed to develop independently a critical stance toward the texts; nor did they appear to question the underlying assumptions presented by the various authors, even when these assumptions contradicted one another.
Myers, Hammett, and McKillop (1998), on the other hand, “framed hypermedia authoring for [their] students as an opportunity to make problematic the ideas and issues that cut across [their] lives by organizing an examination of the texts which represent those lives (pp. 68-69).” It appears that this active and scaffolded approach to dealing with multiple sources in a hypermedia setting aided learners in developing a critical stance toward both their reading and their authoring of hypertext. I would therefore argue that it is necessary not only to present students with multiple texts, but to support their learning through scaffolding in ways that allow them to become comfortable questioning the author, looking for the biases in any text, and confirming the information presented with facts from additional resources. Such sources could include print- or Web-based texts that adhere to clearly delineated standards for presentation of information, such as the fact-checking most major newspapers or book publishers undertake before publishing their materials.
Internet Resources for Teachers
There are a number of sites that are instructional gold mines for teachers, with links to such resources including lesson plans and reproducible material. These sites offer a range of activities, from computer based to traditional, that can contribute to sound lesson planning across a range of subject areas. They can be especially helpful for developing effective instruction in a new subject area or as a source of new ideas to integrate into a regularly revisited component of the curriculum. Some are completely free, while others provide a free trial period but require a fee for continued use. I strongly recommend an Internet search as a way of increasing the number of resources that can be useful aids in expanding your teaching repertoire.
The following sites are presented as a way to begin your explorations. Some have ideas for using the new technologies, while others are more traditional. Not all will meet your particular needs, but they will provide you with a sense of the types of resources that are available. Check them out -- it only takes a few clicks!
| Sites for Teachers | NetGuide’s Education Guide |
| Columbia Education Center | Teaching and Learning from the Tucson Unified School District |
| Ask ERIC Lesson Plans from the Educational Resources Information Center | Lesson Plans and Resources for Social Studies Teachers at the University of California, Northridge |
| TEAMS Distance Learning K-12 Lesson Plans from the Los Angeles County Office of Education | The Lesson Plans Page |
| e-Tutor, Inc. | Lightspan StudyWeb: Links for Learning |
| Surfing the Net with Kids | Time for Kids |
| Learning Network’s Fun Brain | DiscoverySchool from the Discovery Channel and DiscoverySchool’s Puzzlemaker |
| Teachers @ Random from Random House Publishers | Houghton Mifflin Education Place |
| McGraw-Hill School Division World | Everyday Spelling from Scott Foresman - Addison Wesley Publishers |
| The Children’s Literature Web Guide | Carol Hurst’s Children’s Literature Site |
| Super Kids Educational Software Review | Enchanted Learning Software |
References
Bigelow, B. (1989). Discovering Columbus: Rereading the past. Language Arts, 66(6), 635-643.
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Chall, J.S. (1996). Stages of reading development. Orlando, FL: Harcourt, Brace.
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Cooper, J.D. (2000). Literacy: Helping children construct meaning. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
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Dillon, K. (1999). Nasties on the net: Media hype or major concern for schools? In J. Hancock (Ed.), Teaching literacy using information technology: Articles from the Australian Literacy Educators’ Association (pp. 89-106). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
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Guillaume, A.M. (2000). Learning with text in the primary grades. In R.D. Robinson, M.C. McKenna, & J.M. Wedman (Eds.), Issues and trends in literacy education (pp. 247-264). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
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Harris, T.L., & Hodges, R.E. (Eds.). (1995). The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
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Hawisher, G., & Selfe, C. (1999). Reflections on research in computers and composition studies at the century’s end. In J. Hancock (Ed.), Teaching literacy using information technology: Articles from the Australian Literacy Educators’ Association (pp. 31-47). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
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Kinzer, C. (2000/2001, December/January). Addressing issues of Internet safety [an Electronic
Classroom Web watch]. Reading Online, 4(6). Available: www.readingonline.org/electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=/electronic/webwatch/safety/index.html Kuhn, M.R. (2000, November). A comparative study of small group fluency instruction. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Reading Conference, Scottsdale, AZ. Kuhn, M.R., & Stahl, S.A. (2000, March). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices (rep. no. 2-008). Ann Arbor, MI: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement. Available (PDF file): www.ciera.org/ciera/publications/report-series/inquiry-2/2-008.pdf Labbo, L.D. (1996). A semiotic analysis of young children’s symbol making in a classroom computer center. Reading Research Quarterly, 31(4), 356-385. Labbo, L.D., & Kuhn, M.R. (1997, November). Computers and emergent literacy: Expanding upon reading. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the College Reading Association, Boston, MA. Labbo, L.D., & Kuhn, M.R. (2000). Weaving chains of affect and cognition: A young child’s understanding of CD-ROM talking books. Journal of Literacy Research, 32(2), 187-210. Abstract available: www.coe.uga.edu/jlr/v32/Article_32_2_3.html Myers, J., Hammett, R., & McKillop, A.M. (1998). Opportunities for critical literacy/pedagogy in student constructed hypermedia. In D. Reinking, M.C. McKenna, L.D. Labbo, & R.D. Kieffer (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp. 63-78). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [Note: This publication is reviewed elsewhere at this site.] Papert, S. (1984). New theories for new learnings. School Psychology Review, 13(4), 422-428. Rickelman, R.J., & Caplan, R.M. (2000). Technological literacy in the intermediate and middle grades. In K.D. Wood & T.S. Dickinson (Eds.), Promoting literacy in grades 4-9: A handbook for teachers and administrators (pp. 306-316). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Roe, B.D. (2000). Using technology for content area literacy. In S.B. Wepner, W.J. Valmont, & R. Thurlow (Eds.), Linking literacy and technology: A guide for K-8 classrooms (pp. 133-158). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. [Note: A sample chapter from this book is available online.] Rowand, C. (2000, April). Teacher use of computers and the Internet in public schools. Education Statistics Quarterly: Elementary and Secondary Education. Available: nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2000090 Smerdon, B., Cronen, S., Lanahan, L., Anderson, J., Iannotti, N., Angeles, J., & Greene, B. (2000, September). Teachers’ tools for the 21st century: A report on teachers’ use of technology. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Available: nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2000102 Snyder, I. (1999). Integrating computers into the literacy curriculum: More difficult than we first imagined. In J. Hancock (Ed.), Teaching literacy using information technology: Articles from the Australian Literacy Educators’ Association (pp. 11-30). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Stahl, S.A., Hynd, C.R., Britton, B.K., McNish, M.M., & Bosquet, D. (1996). What happens when students read multiple source documents in history? Reading Research Quarterly, 31, 430-456. Stahl, S.A., Hynd, C., Montgomery, T., McClain, V. (1997). In fourteen hundred and ninety-two, Columbus sailed the ocean blue: The effects of multiple document readings on student attitudes and misconceptions (Rep. No. 82). Athens, GA: National Reading Research Center. Thurlow, R. (2000). How do I begin to use technology in my classroom? In S.B. Wepner, W.J. Valmont, & R. Thurlow (Eds.), Linking literacy and technology: A guide for K-8 classrooms (pp. 19-39). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. [Note: A sample chapter from this book is available online.] Travers, J. (1999). Everything is connected: An information technology program comes together. In J. Hancock (Ed.), Teaching literacy using information technology: Articles from the Australian Literacy Educators’ Association (pp. 66-77). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Wenglinsky, H. (1998). Does it compute? The relationship between educational technology and student achievement in mathematics [policy information report]. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Available: www.ets.org/research/pic/technolog.html Glossary Automaticity: Fluent processing of information that requires little effort or attention, as sight-word recognition (Harris & Hodges, 1995). Prosody: A series of features including pitch or intonation, stress or emphasis, tempo or rate, and the rhythmic or regularly recurring of language (Kuhn, 2000). About the Author
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Melanie Kuhn is an assistant professor in the Department of Learning and Teaching at Rutgers Graduate School of Education (Seminary Place, New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1183, USA). She recently received her Ph.D. in reading education from the University of Georgia, and she holds an M.Phil. from Cambridge University and an Ed.M. from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Her research interests include fluency development, struggling readers, and technology-related literacy. She can be contacted by e-mail at melaniek@rci.rutgers.edu.
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Citation: Kuhn, M. (2001, April). Taking computers out of the corner: Making technology work in the classroom. Reading Online, 4(9). Available: http://www.readingonline.org/electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=/electronic/kuhn/index.html
Reading Online, www.readingonline.org
Posted April 2001
© 2001 International Reading Association, Inc. ISSN 1096-1232